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HUMAN
BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY
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Human Behavior and
Personality: Analysis of Discontinuous Stage Development Mike D. Cannon Capella
University of Minnesota |
In discontinuous stage
theories of human personality and development, individuals may encounter
developmental stages at different times, but the process is invariant. Stage
theorists acknowledge developmental changes by an individual's progression
towards an expected end state. Researchers of stage development in human
behavior and personality such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Lawrence
Kohlberg proclaim that all developmental stages occur in the same sequence and
that each stage is a necessary building block for the proper development of the
next stage.
Human Behavior and
Personality: Analysis of Discontinuous Stage Development
Some
researchers of human development believe that certain developmental changes
are dictated by human genotype or genetics, while other theorists such as
stage theorists believe there are other ways to describe the overall sequence
of changes. Stage theorists characterize developmental changes by the progression
towards an expected end state. Researchers of stage development in human personality
and behavior believe that developmental stages occur in the same sequence
and that each stage is a necessary building block for the proper development
of the next stage (Zimbardo & Gerring, 1996). It is theorized that individuals
may encounter developmental stages at different times but the process is the
same and that stages do not occur in different orders. In stage development,
each stage can be identified independently; but at the same time, each stage
is contingent on the previous stage development. This is known as a discontinuous
series of discrete stages. Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg
are all stage theorists and are world renowned for their research in stage
development of the human personality. A thorough investigation of the stage
development process of each theorist, similarities and differences between
the three theorists, and the limitations associated with each discontinuous
stage theory offer a beneficial understanding of these theories.
Sigmund Freud proposed that human personality during childhood develops in a succession of stages known as the psychosexual stages of development. In his theory of infantile sexuality, Freud identified specific zones of the body that provide the libido (a pleasure-seeking energy) with self-gratification. Freud thought that within normative development parameters, the sequences of stages are invariant to each other as one stage is incorporated into the succeeding one (DiLeo, 1977). As each new stage assumes a dominant role, each proceeding stage would be developed normally, and at the end of puberty, all stages would harmoniously coexist with each other to form a psychologically well-adjusted person.
On the other hand, if a person is unable to resolve a conflict at the appropriate stage in development, the person could become fixated at that stage. This fixation could then cause a preoccupation with the area of pleasure that was associated with that stage in development. The signs of this fixation will become apparent as the child matures and problems will arise with the adult personality characteristics (Zimbardo & Gerring, 1996).
The first year or so of
the child's life, Freud denotes as the oral
stage. During this stage, the child's main focus is around the rooting
and suckling reflex. Pleasure and self-gratification are acquired by the mouth.
Because a sense of satisfaction is being acquired during this stage, it also
leads to a sense of trust for the infant. A fixation can occur at this stage
if an infant is pulled from breast feeding too soon or too late. This fixation
could lead to some type of preoccupation with the mouth area, such as an eating
disorder, smoking or alcoholism just to name a few.
The anal stage occurs during the second year of life. At this point, the
focus is around the holding or elimination of human waste. This is approximately
the age when parents are trying to teach their children toilet training procedures.
This is also a time of independency and autonomy for the child. The child
is trying to reach out and explore the world and does not want to be controlled
by an outsider, but because the world is too big, the only thing the child
has the ability to control is the elimination of waste. Because toilet training
procedures may be ordered upon the child too early or too late in life, both
pleasure and conflicts begin around the anal area that may cause an anal fixation.
This fixation could lead to an adult who is stingy, obsessive-compulsive or
totally disorganized.
During the fourth year
to approximately the fifth year, the stage is known as the phallic stage. At this time, the preoccupation is around the genital
area. This is a time of discovery that something is down there and he or she
wants to know what it is. It is also a time for the curiosity of the sex organs
of self and others, primarily the significant others. During this time, boys and girls encounter
what Freud called complexes. For the boys, the complex is known as the Oedipus
complex and incorporates castration anxiety. This is when a boy secretly desires
to possess his mother sexually, but fear of being exposed is so overwhelming
that he represses his desire and begins to identify with the father's actions
and behaviors. On the other hand,
girls also experience a complex known as the Electra Complex and it incorporates
an entity known as penis envy. During this time, a girl begins to identify
with her mother, but with the realization that she does not possess a penis
she soon transfers her love to the father. With a fixation at this stage,
a person in later life could have problems with authority figures and problems
maintaining long-term stable relationships.
Freud's latency stage (age 6-12) is one of industry
and growing self-esteem. During this stage, children normally start to school
and it continues until dramatic changes at puberty. This is a time of social growth and social
activities. By no means are the sexual interests extinct, they are merely
directed in different areas such as seeking of knowledge, social interaction,
and getting in touch with becoming a social being. The development of this stage is very important for acquiring the
skills necessary to smoothly integrate into society. If by some reason, there
is a problem during the development of this stage, children may not acquire
the necessary skills to develop a sense of self-confidence and self-esteem
needed to interact within normal limits.
Last in Freud's list of
psychosexual stages is the genital
stage (age 13-18). During this stage, children
are no longer children but they are not adults either. They are now developing
physically, sexually and emotionally. They are caught in a whirlwind of opportunities,
but the uncertainty of the future may be somewhat overwhelming. At first,
these young adults will adhere very closely with their own sex, seeking advice
from peers rather than from parents. They will remain in homogeneous groups
until the need for interaction with the opposite sex, as they see it, becomes
important. They will then start to date and establish relationships with the
opposite sex. At that point the world becomes a balancing act between family,
friends and lovers.
Freud thought that normal development was based on successful integration and resolution of the psychosexual stages of development. He also thought that if all develops as planned, human personality will fare well (Gournaris, 1996). All of Freud's psychosexual stages of development can be detailed individually, but in reality, they are all small components that are interwoven in an overall system of behavioral development.
Freud's psychosexual development stages have been critiqued and criticized by many researchers and theorists. With Freud's primary focus on male psychosexual development and his attention to the male anatomy, this left many researchers questioning his overall concept of the psychosexual development of women. As a result, many researchers have rejected some or all of his ideas and moved away from his primary focus of sex. Because Freud's ideas had a strong basis but did not reach other areas of human development, theorists moved away from this and called themselves Neo-Freudians (Bernstein, Stewart-Clark, Roy, and Wickens, 1997). They were called Neo-Freudians because they maintained many of the basic beliefs of Freud but developed ideas of their own regarding personality development. Erik Erikson was just one of the many theorists known as a Neo-Freudian.
Erikson accepted a great
many of the Freudian theoretical perspectives regarding infantile sexuality,
but rejected Freud's attempt to describe personality totally on the basis of
sexuality. In comparison to Freud's work, Erikson based his first five stages
of development in direct correlation to that of Freud's, but incorporated more
of a social factor that related to human development. Erikson thought that
personality developed far beyond puberty as Freud had proclaimed and he
included three additional stages that move beyond puberty through old age. He
believed that children develop socially and that all social crises impacted on
the development of the personality. Erikson, like Freud, was a stage theorist
and thought that each stage of development built on the proceeding stage of
development. He felt that one stage must be completed before an individual
could successfully move on to the next stage. Erikson identified his stage
development processes as the psychosocial stages of development.
Erikson called his first
stage of personality development basic trust
vs. mistrust. Within the first year of life, infants learn to trust or
mistrust the world around them. This is accomplished or not accomplished
through that of the mother and the maternal relationship. If trust is not
established, children may have problems moving into the second stage that
Erikson called autonomy vs. shame and
doubt (age 2). During this time, the child tries to develop some type of
autonomy. He or she tries to exercise choices and maintain self-control. If a
child does not proceed through this stage with success, there can be doubts
about independency and a sense of justice. During the third stage, known as initiative vs. guilt (age 3-5), children
begin to initiate activities, take control and make things happen. At this
point, they are trying to seek a purpose in life. If not allowed to show
initiative, children may feel a sense of guilt about their attempts for
independence and begin to develop a sense of dependence on others. The initiative vs. guilt stage has a great correlation to that of Freud's phallic stage since it is the age frame
that includes the Oedipus and Electra complexes as well as the phases of
castration anxiety and penis envy.
Stage four is industry vs. inferiority (age
6-puberty). During this stage, children
are industrious and curious about the world around them. School and learning
are important factors and a sense of accomplishment is the ultimate goal. If
this stage is interrupted, children may encounter a feeling of inferiority and
be hesitant to attempt future tasks.
In stage five, identity vs. role confusion
(adolescence), individuals begin to be concerned about their appearance and how
others view them. Ego is a very important factor during this time. At this
point, individuals attempt to reach some type of self-identity and gain a sense
of uniqueness. Wants for the future are observed and sought. When these wants
are unattainable and indecision is overwhelming, it is quite disturbing for the
adolescent and can lead to role confusion.
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood) is the following
stage. Within this stage, the
individual begins to develop a commitment to another. He or she wants to trust
and share within the relationship. If for some reason, this stage does not
develop properly. Individuals may feel isolated and alone in the world. During
stage seven, generativity vs. stagnation
(middle age) adults are willing to take on the responsibilities of family and
work. They begin to think of themselves as independent and self-sufficient and
start to live life with a sense of direction for the betterment of the next
generation. If the adult stage has appeared and a sense of emptiness exists,
individuals within this stage may become self-centered and socially inactive.
The last stage in the psychosocial development according to Erikson is the integrity vs. despair (old age). At this
point, individuals will begin to reflect on their past life, the
accomplishments during that life and find meaning in what has been
accomplished. Also, they will begin to prepare for death by encountering a
sense of respect and personal dignity. If this stage is positively developed,
and when death approaches, departure from this life will be peaceful. However,
if this stage is not fully developed, individuals will feel that their lives
were meaningless, goals were not fulfilled and death will be greatly feared.
Further research into
the eight stages of Erik Erikson has uncovered a ninth stage of development.
Introduced by Ms. Joan Erikson, collaborator and wife of the late Erik Erikson
(Hobgood, 1997). This stage is known in her book titled The Life Cycle
Completed as the very old age.
Ms. Erikson describes this stage as "the challenges faced by elders whose
years of autonomy over their bodies and life choices are impacted by the
inevitable wages of time. She outlines the critical role that hope and faith
must play in the lives of eighty and ninety-year-olds, and she perceptively
revisions the very concept of wisdom" (Norton, 1997).
Because Erik Erikson incorporated both aspects of societal and cultural development within his framework of personality and not just the aspect of sexuality, his overall theoretical foundation is more comprehensive than that of Freud. Like Freud's work, Erikson's work was not based on a statistical background but on a theoretical foundation. Because of this, the work of both theorists is difficult to show any type of quantitative validity (Davis, 1997). However, as research has shown, all theoretical frameworks do not have to be quantitative in nature to be based in science. As we have seen with the works of Freud and Erikson, both psychosexual and psychosocial development are a large part of child psychological and personality development and will be for many years to come.
Like both Freud and Erikson, Kohlberg's research is also interrelated in theoretical foundations. All three theorists fundamentally deal with questions that relate to the inseparable topics of ego and character development (Bissell, 1997). Freud's research showed the importance of sexual development and its impact to the personality structure. Erikson's research showed the importance of social development and its impact to the ego and social groups. While research produced by Kohlberg, showed the importance of moral character and how that relates to social conformity. "Morality is a system of beliefs, values, and underlying judgments about the rightness or wrongness of human acts" (Zimbardo and Gerrig, 1996). Like Freud and Erikson, Kohlberg was a stage theorist. He believed that each person must develop one stage at a time and that an individual could not skip stages. In contrast to Freud and Erikson, Kohlberg's workable stages had a more diversified age range span that could be used to broaden and incorporate a wider array of moral development attributes. As a result of this, many of Freud's and Erikson's stages could be encompassed within Kohlberg's first two levels.
Kohlberg introduced three levels of moral reasoning and within the three levels, he introduced six different stages or two stages per level for basing moral judgments. The stages within the levels ranged from a low of self-centeredness to an extreme of social good. To identify these stages of moral reasoning, Kohlberg tested moral principles against each other by introducing dilemmas (Barger, 1996). In these experiments, individuals would be given an ethical and/or moral dilemma and have to choose what they would do based on the given situation.
Kohlberg's levels of
moral reasoning are known as pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional.
Within the first level there are two stages. The first stage is called obedience and punishment (age 1-5) and
the second stage is selfishness (age
5-10). During the first stage, children conform to social norms by obeying
authority figures. However, all of this is a compelling motive to avoid
punishment at all cost. At the second stage within the pre-conventional level
is selfishness. Selfishness is characterized by acting appropriately to
increase the chance of receiving rewards, or negotiating an exchange in order
to obtain a fair deal.
The second level of
moral reasoning is known as the conventional
level. This level contains two stages. These stages are known as the good boy/good girl (age 8-16) and law and order (age 16 and older). At the
first stage of the conventional level, individuals are looking for approval and
acceptance from society. At the second stage their focus is on obeying the
laws, following the rules and preparing to do the "right" thing.
Kohlberg denoted his
third level as post-conventional. It
is the final level in the stages of moral reasoning. This level as with the
other levels, contain stages one and two. Stage one is known as the social contract and stage two as the principle conscience. Individuals within stage one base decisions on more of
a personal standard. They respect the law to the best of their ability and
understand its importance in maintaining an orderly society. They also consider
the health, rights and welfare of others but also take into consideration that
human rights may sometimes supersede the law. Stage two, according to Kohlberg
is a rare stage to acquire. It incorporates all of stage one but takes things a
step further. These individuals are very philosophical in nature. They conform
to societal demands but at the same time act independently of society. Their
lives are basically very simple and pragmatic. Existence is based on such things
as the golden rule. These individuals care about and respect the whole world
around them and see the world as a haven for equality.
As with the work of Freud and Erikson, Kohlberg's work encountered many criticisms. Critiques have proclaimed that his studies were based on cognition and logic and not on the feelings of others. His beliefs were that an individual's moral development and reasoning were based on chronological age, regardless of his or her actual life experiences (Tucker-Ladd, 1997). Further research has also shown that individuals are able to develop certain moral skills either younger or later than Kohlberg had proclaimed (Tucker-Ladd, 1997).
Similar to the work of Kohlberg, both Freud and Erikson acknowledged their work to be grounded on a process of stage development with an understanding that age ranges may vary but the process is invariant. In this case, all theorists were in agreement, but there is one slight difference. In the work of Freud and Erikson, their age span denoting process stage development was more restrictive, whereas in Kohlberg's stage development, age range encompasses more flexibility as compared to the other two theorists. Further problems with Kohlberg's studies, showed that his work was gender and culturally biased (Bernstein et al., 1997). Different cultures and genders do not develop morals at the same rate within the stage processes identified. This is unlike the work of Freud and Erikson, who thought their stages of development were more or less universal, provided one receives the appropriate care and socialization during the developmental processes. Also, Freud and Erikson thought stage development age ranges may vary, but the process is the same regardless of cultural diversity. Further research has indicated that moral ideas and values do not fall in an absolute category nor are they universal in nature. The adaptation of morals are a derivative of the cultural upbringing that one encounters and for the most part, moral development of an individual is a product of one's environmental conditions.
In discontinuous stage
theories of human personality and development, individuals may encounter
developmental stages at different times but the process is invariant. Stage
theorists acknowledge developmental changes by an individual's progression
towards an expected end state. Researchers of stage development in human
behavior and personality such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Lawrence
Kohlberg proclaim that all developmental stages occur in the same sequence and
that each stage is a necessary building block for the proper development of the
next stage. Even though these theorists pioneered a great deal of understanding
in the field of discontinuous stage development, each one has encountered his
share of criticisms from the scientific world. However, they have given the
scientific community a great deal of understanding in the areas of sexual,
social and moral development.
References
·
Barger,
R.N. (1996). A summary of Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
[WWW document]. http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/kohlberg.html
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Bernstein,
B.A., Stewart-Clark, A., Roy, E.J., & Wickens, C.D. (1997). Psychology
(4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
·
Bissell,
J. (1997). Psychological and moral growth and the learning process [WWW document].
http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed173/lectures/unit3_lectures.html
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Davis,
D. (1997, December). Psychosocial theory: Erikson [WWW document]. http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g97/erikson.stages.html.
·
Di
Leo, J.H. (1977). Child development: Analysis and synthesis. New York:
Brunner/Mazel.
·
Gournaris,
M.J. (1997, December). Psychoanalytic therapy [WWW document]. http://www.gallaudet.edu/~11mgourn/psychoan.html
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Hobgood,
G. (1997, July). Joan Erikson on old age [WWW document]. http://davidsonfilms.com/joan.htm
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Norton,
W.W. (1997, August). The life cycle completed [WWW document]. http://www.wwnorton.com/catalog/spring96/003934.htm
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Tucker-Ladd,
C.E. (1997). Writing your own philosophy of life [WWW document]. http://www.cmhc.com/psyhelp/chap3/chap3h.htm
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Zimbardo,
P.G., & Gerrig, R.J. (1996). Psychology and life (14th ed.). New
York: HarperCollins.